What did medieval Europe learn from Islam and Byzantium Essay Example for Free

What did medieval europium learn from Islam and Byzantium EssayThe empires of Islam and Byzantium have nigh definitely left an impression on the modern society we live in today. Sciences such as astronomy and biology proposed under the influences of these great domains and it was only inevitable that their teachings would expand to, what was perceived at the time, the backward existence of medieval Europe. This essay will identify the key aspects of both Muslim and Byzantium culture that most encouraged the ultimate prosperity of medieval Europe and the impact on the normal lives of its citizens. During the Iberian conquest and settlement, Arab inspiration was in brief to pave the way for a renaissance in Europe. Taylor stipulated that the advent of Islamia in Spain indirectly led to the architectural magnificence of Europes finest cathedrals. (Taylor, 119). The churches of western christianity in southren and primaeval Italy as well as in southern France and Spain do sho w some amazing peculiarities local architects likely borrowed from their colleagues in the Islamic world. Notably, the use of coloured marble in certain Italian styles, and the peculiar use of domes in the churches of southern France show influences of Islam.However, by far the most notable influence of the Islamic world on Christian Europe was, without a shadow of doubt, the introduction of pointed arch into the west, which the Muslim architects were well acquainted with, but the development of such a construction was a major enigma for entire generations of Christian architects. Without the use of pointed arch it would be impossible to develop Gothic style with its monumental and fantastic cathedrals of northern France and central Europe. This, perhaps, was the single superior contribution of Islam to the development of the Christian architecture.A view shared by Harun foundations of Gothic traditionalism can be founded in much of Muslim contributors (Harun, 23). The dust of su ch art was not limited to the influences of the Islamic world. In fact the status, both politically and culturally, of the Byzantium Empire led to a extensive replication of its work. contrivance objects in great number were imported to the West from Constantinople and other Greek centres (Simmons, 274). A perfect example of such imitation can be highlighted by the decor of many a cathedral and church in Europe during the eleventh century.Heavy bronze church doors resembled greatly some of the sarcophagi found and geological dating from the Byzantium era. However it is not only art that medieval Europe learnt from Islam and Byzantium traditions. Science had a huge impact on Europe also and the teachings of the Muslim scholars were soon interpreted and adapted by the early scientists of the west. While European hospitals at this time were usually simply monasteries where the sick were told they would live or die fit in to Gods will, not human intervention, Muslim hospitals pioneer ed the practices of diagnosis, cure, and future prevention.The first hospital in the Islamic world was built in Damascus in 707, and soon most major Islamic cities had hospitals, in which hygiene was emphasized and healing was a priority. Hospitals were open 24 hours a day, and many doctors did not charge for their services. Later, a central hospital was established in Baghdad by order of the Abbasid ruler, the first of thirty-four hospitals throughout the Muslim world, many of them with special wards for women.An important contribution of Byzantium is arguably the fact that it was the first Empire in which dedicated medical establishments usually set up by individual Churches or the State, which parallel modern hospitals in many ways, flourished. Although similar establishments existed in Ancient Greece and Rome, they differed in that they were usually either institutions for Military use, or places were citizens went to die in a more peaceful way. medical examination Institution s of this sort were common in Imperial Cities such as Constantinople.It is clear the advancement throughout the western world during medieval times, was largely due to the influences of the Islamic and Byzantine Empires. Both respectively contributed greatly to the eventual progression found throughout Europe. As these two powers declined, the imitations and, as Dr Simmons describes, barbaric representations made by Europeans of such civilisations certainly preserved the existence of western Europe and perhaps even dragged them out of the commonly known Dark Ages.

Career Development Plan Essay Example for Free

Career Development Plan EssayThe recent union of InterClean and EnviroTech (ICET) has opened many opportunities for employee promotions. In an effort to stimulate our employees, focus on their strength and talents, and get a line them new skills that give assist in our overall success, direction has decided to revamp the way studys been d 1 in the past by implementing a new domesticateing performance format. Our new training module forget focus on sanitation standards, communication, customer helper and satisfaction and networking. The political program go forth consist of 9 steps that exit primal in on industry knowledge. The training format will consist of new training evaluation and mentoring needs, focus on objectives of training and mentoring, reviewing performance standards, learn delivery methods, examine bailiwicks for training and mentoring, address time frames and evaluation methods, feedback, and lastly explore alternative avenues for further development . Once this program is implemented, we believe our employees will develop an expertise in their respective areas that will have a verifying impact in ICETs organizational competitiveness, performance and productivity.The new training and mentoring needs The new training format will impact the way ICET does business. The focus of the new iii week training will be to teach our sales associates about sanitation standards, communication, customer utility and satisfaction and networking. Each step in the new training format will help us learn overall success that will benefit the employee and our company as well. However, training alone will not offer one on one simulation.Therefore, we are implementing a mentoring program that will give employees accessibility to learn and work with mentors that have specific knowledge about interested areas for a finale of six month to ensure well rounded working knowledge from key experts. Objectives of the training and mentoring program The obje ctive of training will be indispensable to lay down future success. Therefore, the first objective will be to learn about the sanitation standards and regulations so that we will be well informed as we cross over into health care service solutions.The second objective we will focus on is communication. The key concentrations will be listening, and planning to attain effective ratiocination making. The third objective will be customer service and satisfaction as related to mortalal attention and quality service and lastly the fourth objective will be on the importance of networking to build relationships with key industry contacts. With regards to the mentoring program our focus will be to comply all the aforementioned above that will blend with our new mentoring program.This will allow employees to focus on their specific career development goals they would standardized to process within the organization by working aside once a week for six month period with a mentor that is an expert in the chosen area. Performance standards The performance standards will be rated base on job role expectations. The indicators for example in sales will be based on revenue generated. This will be measured by how many sales deals were closed and the type of products. Market integration or expansion overly be measured.Here the ability to find new perspective customer or even cross over into other types of health care businesses such as nursing homes or medical rehabs will be taken into evaluated and lastly customer retention based on quality customer service and feedback will also be considered. We feel all expectations will be reasonable and attainable once training is completed. Delivery methods Delivery methods are decisive when training is being implemented. The focus is to keep the trainee interested and integrated during training. Therefore, we will focus on trey training methods experimental, integrative and reinforcement.For sanitation standards we will train w ith fact sheets, videos and or pamphlet and booklets. This will fall under the reinforcement methods. For the communication objectives, we will use skits because it will teach the trainee real life simulations which send away be critiqued to help improve and fine tweak any area that need improvement. This delivery method will fall under the experimental method. As for the customer service objective, we will use dialogue. This will allow the trainee to placeicipate and improve their delivery when meeting a customer and or closing the deal.This trend will fall under the integrative methods and lastly we will use networking via conventions and or conferences so the trainee can interact with other business professionals. As for the mentoring program we will offer face to face interaction once weekly with expert mentors by area. Content for training and mentoring To achieve the topper outcomes for ICET, we believe the content of the training program should be closely correlated tot to our business strategy and organizational goals. Therefore we will evaluate the skill and ability of employees that best match the open positions.This will be done by evaluating experience, worker, and occupational requirements. For example, experience will evaluated based on former training, experience, certifications or licenses. Worker requirements will be based on basic skills, cross functional skills, knowledge and education and lastly occupational requirement will be measure by general work activities, work and organizational content (Cascio 2005). Time frame Setting realistic time frames for employees to be trained properly is an important part of a successful training and mentoring program.Forming new habits or learning new methodologies take times which is why we have decided that employees will receive three week training so they feel fully acclimated and comfortable when they are out on the field. As for the mentoring program, we have decided to make it a three month prog ram because we feel in order to appreciate and truly learn hands on the employee should be exposed to the daily routines of the mentor. Once the employee gets a well grasp of each section during the allotted training time, we believe they will be motivated and continue to develop their skills via applied experience they attain while working.Evaluation methods A good evaluation will most often use multiple methods because a well rounded objective decision can be archived. Therefore, we have decided that we will evaluate employees by these three standards group interviews so we may see how the candidate behaves and reacts to intimidating settings, person to person simulations to see how the employee performs when selling a product and lastly via personality questionnaire to see if the employee characteristic match up with the extroverted personality we are facial expression for.Feedback Constructive feedback can make all the difference if you want to keep employees motivated. Therefo re, it is our commitment to make sure that all feedback is constructive and address all the good quality the employee posses as well as the areas of improvement that will develop them further. Hence, we will sit with employees and perform verbal feedback that is clear and precise so that on that point is no room for misunderstanding.We want the make sure the employee is encouraged and understands that we are committed and interested in their career development and well being. We would also like to get feedback regarding the training program and any areas of weakness that can be improved. We will build an anonymous questionnaire so that the employee can be candid and honorable without feeling as if there are attached strings. Alternate avenues for those who need further developmentLastly, we would like to digest alternate avenues for employees who would like press further. Therefore, we will provide access to continuing education course twice a year. We will also have updated list ing of conferences and training that will go beyond on internal training so that employees will be aware of the latest trends, approaches, and opportunities in their specific field. We believe this will help the employee morale as they will have access to any continuing education as needed.In conclusion, we believe our new training module will teach and provide the employees with all the necessary tools to become and maintain success.. Our focus on sanitation standards, communication, customer service and satisfaction and networking will set our employees apart from the rest because they will be well rounded and well informed. Once this program is completed, the employees will develop an expertise in their respective areas that will have a positive impact in ICETs organizational competitiveness, performance and productivity.Referencehttp//www.indiana.edu/uhrs/training/performance_management/define.htm

Diversity Organizations Essay Example for Free

Diversity Organizations EssayFor years by means ofout U.S. history women were not afforded the same rights that men were. d angiotensin-converting enzymeout history women were thought of world intellectually outclassed to men and a source of evil and temptation (Womens International Center, 1994). In early America women were not allowed to vote or work outside of their inhabitation and were ridiculed when they did. It was the culture of early America that women were to remain behind the men being in a supportive role but not to voice their opinions. Through much suffrage, it was not until 1848 that the womens movement came to its beginnings. Focusing on the social, well-mannered, and religious condition and rights women at the Seneca Falls Convention in New York began to express their rights and wants. Headed by Elizabeth C. Stanton and Lucretia Mott, it marked a new era for women in the United States.While the right for equality continued and the creation of the National Woman Suffrage sleeper (NWSA) by Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, it brought opposition of the 14th and 15th Amendments (extending citizenship rights and granting voting rights to freedmen) due to its exclusion of women (U.S. Office of Art Archives, n.d.). By the 1920s the struggle for equality was answered and the status of women had grown. On August 18, 1920, the right to vote was ratified by the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution affording the right to vote for women. Today, women throughout the U.S. still excite for woman equality through established organizations. The National Organization for Women (a major source of protection on workplace equality and reproductive rights) has been at the forefront in support of women. With the helper of so legion(predicate) organizations in the fight for womens rights, that statuses of women are equally more at once than that of years passed. placement of women in United States history todayThe role and status of women has drasticall y changed throughout the decades. Women have taken a more responsible role outside of the home in joining theworkforce. From being one-third of the workforce in the late 60s, they make up more than half of the force in the U.S. today. According to Center for American turn over (2014), women have also gained a considerable role within politics in the country with record numbers serving in congress (para. 1). With the fight to end gender discrimination by big insurance companies, women have solidified their economic security. Constructions of masculinity and femininity seen in society and media As American culture continuously evolves, so do the lines of male and female roles and functions. Societys view of masculine and feminine roles has become embedded in the minds of people.From an transaction standpoint, society views for example that doctors and lawyers are one of a masculine role whereas nurses, teachers or social workers would be more of a feminine role. The medias picture is just as bias to the constructions of masculinity and femininity. An example in modern media would be that tattoos and a considerable amount of muscle mass would be viewed as one of a masculine trait. More often the depictions are movies music videos and even in magazines. The role of a homemaker has been viewed for example as one of a feminine role. Although the depictions are in the mainstream, it has been a barrier broken down by both men and women taking on varied various(a) roles.Status of GLBT people historicallyThe GLBT community, throughout history has faced much discrimination and prejudice. The GLBT community has had it hurdles of being socially acceptable and still does today. In the United States, members of the GLBT community historically were a cultural minority. Through much oppression, the gay liberation movement of the 1970s brought forth pride marches either June in the United States. During the 80s socially the status of the GLBT community was decimated by the AIDS epidemic. This led to fear and ridicule being described as the, Gay Mans Cancer. There has never been a more separation of social status with any other community than of the GLBT community. Status of GLBT people todayAlthough America is widely divided today attitudes are changing rapidly in acceptance of gays and lesbians. With the growing approval of same-sex marriage, basic civil liberties and freedom of expression for the GLBTcommunity, the trend of greater tolerance is growing. Over the last two decades, same-sex marriage has risen in support with 11% approval in 1988 to 46% approval and rising today. The status of patriotism and service of GLBT members in uniform in the past resulted in the uncomfortable compromise of Dont Ask, Dont Tell (Morris, PhD, 2014). This crusade like movement ultimately abolished decades of military forms of discrimination and dishonorable discharges. Although there are a great many that seek to dissolve, it creates an opposition between both the hetero and homosexual communities.Social and political issues relevant to women and GLBT people in the U.S A political issue relevant to women would be health care reform. With the Affordable Care Act it provides advances for the womens health issues. The current pending case on contraceptive insurance coverage is an unceasing debate womens rights and health. An extraordinary and yet accomplished issue for the GLBT community is the recent strike down of Arkansas 2004 amendment prohibiting same sex marriage (Volsky, 2014). The fender ban was in violation of the state constitution and the 14th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution.ReferencesWomens International Center. (1994). Womens register in America. Retrieved from http//www.wic.org/misc/history.htm U.S. Office of Art Archives. (n.d.). The Womens Rights Movement, 18481920. Retrieved from http//history.house.gov/Exhibitions-and-Publications/WIC/Historical-Essays/No-Lady/Womens-Rights/ Rainbo Organization. (2009). Organizations Fi ght for Womens Rights. Retrieved from http//www.rainbo.org/organizations-fight-for-womens-rights/ Sewall-Belmont House Museum. (n.d.). Womens History in the U.S. Retrieved from http//www.sewallbelmont.org/learn/womens-history-in-the-u-s/ Bader, E. J. (2014). Reproductive Justice and Womens par There is Some Good News. Retrieved from http//www.truth-out.org/news/item/23588-reproductive-justice-and-womens-equality-there-is-some-good-news Volsky, Igor. (2014). Judge Strikes Down Arkansas Same-Sex espousal Ban. Retrieved from http//thinkprogress.org/lgbt/2014/05/09/3436443/judge-invalidates-arkansas-ban-against-same-sex-marriage/ Morris, PhD, B. J. (2014). History of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual Social Movements. Retrieved from http//www.apa.org/pi/lgbt/resources/history.aspx Associate Program MaterialDiversity Organizations WorksheetSearch the Internet for information related to the followingWomens rights organizationsEquality organizationsGay, lesbian, sissy, and transgender (GLBT) rig hts organizationsNote. You may also refer to the Internet Resource Directory of Racial and Ethnic Groups.Complete the following table with notes and thoughts related to your findingsSiteThoughts/NotesFord Foundation (http//www.fordfoundation.org)Supports inequality discriminationNetwork building for women human rights organizations against discrimination inequalityEquality Now (http//www.equalitynow.org)campaigns to raise awareness by highlighting individual cases of pervasive and inexorable violations against women and girls calls for the repeal of all laws that discriminate against women in accordance with international and regional human rights standards Human Rights Campaign (http//www.hrc.org/)organization working to achieve equality for lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender Americans represents a force of more than 1.5 million members and supporters nationwide mobilizes grassroots actions in diverse communitiesinvests strategically to elect fair-minded individuals to off ice and educates the public about LGBT issues. physical exertion your notes to aid in your responses to the questions below. You may need additional resources from the University Library to complete this activity.Write a 750 to 1,050- word paper answering the following questionsWhat has been the status of women in the United States throughout history? What is the status of women in the U.S. today?What are some examples of concepts or constructions of masculinity and femininity that you see in society and in media? Historically, what has been the social status of GLBT people? What is the status of GLBT people in the U.S. today?What are some social and political issues relevant to women and GLBT people in the U.S.? abide citations for all the sources you use.Submit this Diversity Organizations worksheet and your paper as instructed by your facilitator.

Human Rights Records of Multinationals in Nigeria

homosexual Rights Records of Multinationals in NigeriaChapter 1IntroductionFrom time immemorial man has depended on his environs for any his material conducts. Adam and eve for congressman survived with the around basic of sustenance and the story is that they lived exclusively on fruits gathered from the Garden of Eden including the forbidden one. This is a classical case of mans insatiability with just what is instantly available or sustainable. It is not necessarily greed or avarice merely mans advancement, increasing needs, and quest for the unkn accept. The instruction to increase and multiply created new pressures for him. The a couple of(prenominal) fruits he gathered from the garden could not sustain his ever-increasing family. Eden as well as became too small as a result of his obeying the instruction to increase and multiply, and the need to move to unknget destinations became imperative, where he ran into hordeile situations much(prenominal) as excessive cold, heat, former(a) various forms of inclement weather in addition to unfriendly set out and animal life. Movement from point A to B by foot which was the only option available at the time must yield been genuinely painful and slow. Therefore man had to fashion out ways of impartation. This started with rafters made from much(prenominal) materials as papyrus, to dug- out wooden canoes for water transportation the forerunners of our mass transport agreement, and a large component of mans current environmental problems.Mans growing continued unabated until the industrial revolution that completely changed forever the relationship of man with his environment. The creation of the internal combustion engine could be regarded as a major landmark in mans existence on earth which has facilitated the enormous movement of man, and the drop-off of the universe into the proverbial reality(a) village. It is in this quest for man to satisfy his needs and wants through modern transportatio n, accommodation, leisure and several other aspects of sympathetic exploit that has led to unprecedented demand for energy. Energy in the form of wind, water, sun, fossil etc has become a preoccupation of modern life. However, one which appears to have an obviously ravage consequence on mans environment today is fossil energy the prime mover of mans various activities. The geographic expedition, extraction and exploitation of fossil fuel have so irreversibly dissembleed the earth that they are considered as the major causative factors of global warming.In Nigeria the early geographic expedition of solid minerals which started in 1903 was immediately followed by such geographic expedition for fossil crude colour. The major international company that was involved in this early exploration was Shell DArcy. There is each indication that the congenital communities where these explorations were going on were completely unprepared for the shock of inunct activities. First and foremost, there were no specific existing equitys in the Nigerian system manoeuvre such valet de chambre activities and thereof any attempt at each avoiding disaster or remedying any that occurred was almost completely at the discretion of the direct company. According to the Nigerian Ministry of Solid Minerals Development, mineral exploitation in the kingdom was largely carried out without regards to the adverse effects on the environment or the host communities. It was not until 1946 that the minerals ordinance was enacted with provisions for reclamation of mined out lands. In consequence therefore a unit mines land reclamation unit was conventional to reclaim the hundreds of abandoned mines land all over the country which were relics of the colonial mining activities. The analogous or far worse could be said to be the case for inunct mineral exploitation. One must bear in mind that Shell DArcy was neither CARITAS nor RED CROSS. In the process of their exploration and t husly exploitation, several incidents of ill-use to the ecosystem had occurred and there are several unwritten stories of this great damage to the ecosystem. The first mineral act for Nigeria was actually written in 1946 *123) and from all indications it was quite defective and concentrated mainly on Solid Minerals, and what the Nigerian government saw as the tax income that would accrue to the nation. The areas dealing with environmental impact abatement occupied very limited space and importance. It is instructive to mention here that the spotless minerals and mining sector which included solid minerals and crude vegetable oil mining was under one ministry ab initio. It was only when crude oil took precedence over solid minerals that the two were separated in the 1970s sooner a full- fledged Ministry of Solid Minerals culture was established in 1995 which is the structure as at today.There have been several reported cases of monumental damage to the ecosystem generally and s pecifically to farm lands, fishing areas and other water courses in the Niger delta of Nigeria as a result of accidents or carelessness on the part of oil companies in several Niger delta areas such as Ogoni land, the current Bayelsa, Warri axis (Bob, 2005). Such devastation has consistently occurred, with the oil companies either paying lip service to such disaster abatement or actually offering very painfully limited amounts of redress to host communities. One reality is clear because government either by omission or commission (more of commission) had not been in a position to protect the host communities and their crying interests, we have had cases of unrest in the Niger delta area. grown among these unrests are the Ogoni uprising, and of recent, MEND (movement for the emancipation of the Niger delta) with their negative attendant consequences on the Nigerian nation and her economy. These cases of unrest have been extensively documented and had attracted international attentio n and sympathy. a great deal as one would say that the extant laws guiding the exploration and exploitation of crude oil in the country have undergone serious reforms, several factors external the laws have come to further exacerbate an already difficult situation. Opinion is that while the existing laws are not extremely favorable to host companionship existence and indeed the entire ecosystem, other human race failings in the Nigerian system have lent their weight to inflicting extensive pain on host communities of oil producing areas. The most hurting has been positively identified as weakenion. The oil companies are 100% profit making organizations. Therefore in this system where a gift of a gold watch and a cup of coffee, could easily make a minister whose job includes enforcement of extant laws to look the other way while direct bodies break all the existing laws, these oil companies naturally found it easier to side track national laws in order to go at maximum profit w hile inflicting untold pain and hardship on host communities.ObjectivesThe primary objective of this paper is to broadly examine the fundamental interaction surrounded by multinationals and the host countries in which they do job from a human regenerates perspective. For the purpose of this discourse, I will limit my case studies to three prominent multinationals in Nigeria, which are Shell, Chevron, and Exxon Mobil. As earlier stated, some of these industries present a huge number of dangers and in legion(predicate) cases extremely hazardous consequences for employees, inhabitants of certain communities and indeed the environment particularly their effect on flora and zoological science. While some of these dangers presented may not be committed intentionally, some individuals are nevertheless made to take over less than desirable conditions, in the hands of company security agents all of which border on human rights violations. Therefore in this paper, positive and the nega tive roles vie by the multinationals will be examined in order to help assess their human rights records properly. As an integral part of this research also, extant laws, covenants and treaties if any that these multinationals have signed regarding their operations within the country will be examined, as well as the companys operational guidelines.Organization Of DissertationChapter 1 is basically come to with the introduction. For the purpose of this work however, the next chapter will give a brief overview of the country and the history of oil exploration in Nigeria as well as a discussion of the major innovation which is human rights from the perspective of several scholars. Chapter 3will focus mainly on the human rights performance of these multinationals (negative and positive), opening with their corporate social responsibility and how well they have behaved in host communities and abided by their business principles. The forth chapter then will solely be cogitate on the spillover effects of the activities of the multinationals and as such the reaction of the host communities and the Nigerian government in general. The fifth chapter will be the conclusions and recommendations.Research Question1. What are the human rights records of multinationals in the oil industry in Nigeria specifically slip, chevron, and Exxon Mobil?2. How well have these companies kept to their public statements and operating principles?Chapter 2This chapter will give an overview of the country and a brief history of its oil exploration and exploitation in the country, vis a vis, the definition of human rights as defined by several scholars.Overview Of NigeriaNigeria is doubtlessly the most populous nation in Africa with an estimated 140 million people. The nation comprises 36 states and one federal official capital territory. Nigeria is also blessed with vast land and mineral resources which include, but not limited to cocoa, cassava, coal, bauxite, tin, tantalite, iron ore , limestone, gold, many precious metals/stones, and most significantly crude oil. Despite being one of the major producers and exporters of oil in the world and also a member of the OPEC, the country has continued to experience endemic poverty and strife notwithstanding the abundance of the above mentioned. either of this can directly be linked to corruption and mismanagement of funds by the ruling elites, with billions of dollars being made each day by major multinationals in diverse joint venture agreements with the government owned Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC). Bob (2005, p.59) argues that Nigerias highly centralized, notoriously corrupt and ethnically riven political system have made it possible for the countrys leaders both military and civilian to siphon most of the revenue from oil. This institutionalized corruption has almost always been implicated in serious cases of human rights violations. *MITCHELL. According to several authorities including the, US st ate department, among others, oil exploration and exploitation have often precipitated gross human rights violations, citing several cases of extrajudicial killings, torture (US*), and most of all environmental devastation which has led to the terminal of total ecosystems.Oil Exploration In NigeriaThe history oil exploration in Nigeria could be dated as far back as the drill of oil wells in Nigeria by the Nigerian bitumen company in 1903 when mining exploration activities started in Nigeria. However the first major discovery and exploration of oil was in 1956 in oloibiri village in eastern delta of Nigeria (Olorode et al, 1998, p.14). This operation was carried out by Shell DArcy now known as shell petroleum development company (SPDC, 2009). Subsequently, oil companies such as ExxonMobil, Chevron Texaco, ENI/Agip, and TotalFinaElf joined in oil exploration activities mostly in the Delta piece under a joint venture agreement with state owned NNPC. The oil industry has definitely m ade a huge impact on the socio-economic life of Nigeria curiously as one of its major sources of revenue. However oil exploration as an extractive industry has negatively impacted on the indigenous populations where oil drilling and exploration occur. Despite huge profits amassed by the oil industry, gross environmental devastation and degradation have routinely cropped up with little or no solution being proffered to the situation by the oil industry operatives. According to reports by the committee for the defense of human rights (CDHR), the industry has inflicted unprecedented agony on indigenous communities by completely disrupting water ways, destroying soil, water, air, animal, plant life, and generally causing massive destruction in the eco system especially on the flora and fauna (Olorode, 1998, p.15). Communities affected by oil exploration are those of the Niger delta. The Delta region is made up of a number of indigenous communities and states which include Rivers state, Delta, Bayelsa, cross river and Akwa Ibom and they account for slightly 80 percentage of the oil and gas produced in Nigeria.The remaining 20 percent are scattered in different parts of the country such as, Imo, and Ondo *(CDHR). Apart from oil and gas, the Niger Delta is also blessed with agricultural land, creeks, forests, rivers, creeks, and coastal waters with fish and sundry marine life (Okonta and Douglas, 2000, p.33). Ironically even in the midst of these abundant natural resources, the region remains one of the poorest and most under developed in the country, with the people suffering from unimaginable diseases and a complete absence seizure of basic facilities which include electricity, peck water, gentility, hospitals, housing, and fair roads*.Decades of wanton mismanagement of funds and corruption have been cited as the reason for paltry GNP per capita of 280 us dollars, but the reality in the Niger delta is even far worse. A recent survey by the world bank stated that 7 in every 10 Nigerians live below $1 a day (*). Furthermore the area has one of the highest population densities in the world, with an estimated 3 percent growth per year, and this burgeoning population in the face of under development has been referred by Okonta and Douglas as the human ecologists ultimate nightmare a growing population in an attempt to survive (is) destroying the very ecosystem that should guarantee its survival (Okonta and Douglas, 2000, p.34).Most of the suffering of the peoples of the Niger Delta could be attributed to oil companies invading their territories and paying little attention to the plight of the people, and also the ever corrupt government officials and political elites willing to accept bribes and cuts from these multinationals to remain silent. These acts of commission and omission by state functionaries have sometimes been exploited by the multinationals resulting in the brutal repression of dissenting host communities using instruments of state violence (*).Following is a reference to various definitions and concepts of human rights as elucidated by the same authorities. humankind RightsAll human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.Article 1 of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)According to the United Nations declaration of human rights (UDHR), rights fall into two major categories namely civil and political rights, as well as socio-economic and cultural Rights. (Malone, 2003, p.20). courteous and political rights which are also considered as first generation rights are argued to be those unalienable rights to which an individual is entitled. According to the UNDHR they include the right to life, right not to be tortured, right to fair hearing and judicial process.Forsythe, for instance, explained human rights to be those fundamental moral rights of the soul that are necessary for a life with human dignity. (Forsythe, 2006, p.3)Landman (2006), defined human rights as a set of individual and collective rights that have been formally promoted and protected through international and domestic law since the universal proposition declaration of human rights in 1948 (p.8).Alston (2005), cited Karel Vazalis categorization which argues that there are three generations of human rights namely, the first generation civil and political rights, i.e. right to life and political participation. The second generation according to Alston includes economic, social and cultural rights or collectively, right to subsistence. The third generation rights which is the solidarity rights encapsulates the right to peace and most importantly for the purpose of this discourse is the right to a clean environment.There are two schools of thought with regards to environmental human rights which are enshrined in article 21 of the African charter on human and peoples rights, which argues that the right to a wellnessy or adequate environment, constitutes a fundamental component of human rights (African Charter on Peoples and Human Rights Ratification and Enforcement, Act 1990). The second school of thought posits that environmental human rights are derivable from other human rights including, but not limited to the right to life, the right to health, as well as the right to property (Ibid).The whole concept of environmental rights is informed by the concept of a right to a habitable environment for the present and generations yet unborn. According to Olorode (1998, p.8), the extractive industries constitute one of the human activities which have immediate and significant consequences on the environment. Odu (1977) as quoted in Olorode (1998, p.8) also argued that extractive industries may alter the ecology so completely that it cannot support agriculture or fishingSince this treatise is primarily concerned with the human rights records of require multinational oil companies in Nigeria, relevant clauses of the Nigerian constitution on fundamental human right s are worthy of reference. Chapter four of the Nigerian constitution deals solely with fundamental human rights as enumerated in sections 33 to 46, the keynotes of which are reproduced hereunder33. Right to life34. Right to dignity of the human person35. Right to personal liberty.36. Right to fair hearing.37. Right to mystical and family life.38. Right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion39. Right to freedom of expression and the press.40. Right to unaggressive assembly and association.41. Right to freedom of movement.42. Right to freedom from discrimination43. Right to acquire and own immovable property.44. Compulsory acquisition of property.45. Restriction on and derogation from fundamental human rights.46. Special jurisdiction of High Court and Legal aid(Sections 33-46, Constitution federal republic of Nigeria (FRN) 1999)Furthermore section 20 of the same constitution provides that the state shall protect and improve the environment and safeguard the water, air and l and, forest and wildlife of Nigeria. It can therefore be argued that adequate provisions are already in place at least on paper, for the protection and enforcement of the fundamental human rights of Nigerians with particular reference to environmental rights.However, section 44(3) vests the entire property and laterality of all minerals, including oil and gas occurring in any land, upon or under any waters within the Nigerian territory and its exclusive economic regularize on the government of the federation which shall manage these resources in the manner prescribed by the national assembly (Constitution, FRN, 1999). This constitutional provision is more often than not relied upon by the government and its institutions, sometimes allegedly at the behest of the multinational oil giants, to suppress and repress legitimate agitations by aggrieved host communities.The aggrieved host communities are ordinarily either seeking for their fair share of the oil wealth, outright resource c ontrol, or demanding for concrete remedial measures against the sundry negative environmental impacts of oil exploration and exploitation such as gas flaring. According to reports by Osouka and Roderick (2005, p.4) Nigeria flares more gas than any country in the world, averaging a staggering 2.5 billion cubiform feet of gas associated with crude oil. This they argue to be equal to 40% of all Africas natural gas consumption which have contributed more greenhouse gases than the entire sub Saharan Africa as a whole. They posit that the flaring of associated gas in the niger delta is a human rights, environmental and social monstrosity (Osouka and Roderick 2005), because the health and living of the inhabitants of these communities are adversely affected by these unmitigated flares which contain a plethora of pollutants resulting in an increased risk of premature deaths, child respiratory illnesses, asthma attack and cancer Osouka and Roderick (2005, p.29). Osuoka and Roderick furthe r reported that the commission had contended that the Nigerian government had in principle admitted complicity for this hazardous practice by stating that there is no denying the fact that a lot of atrocities were and are still being committed by the oil companies in Ogoni land and indeed the entire niger delta area of Nigeria (Osuoka and Roderick, 2005, p.29)Prior to the 1999 constitutional provision, the federal military government had in 1969 promulgated the petroleum decree which effectively abrogated the 1954 revenue allocation formula that provided for the equal sharing of mining revenue between the regions and the federal government (Oronto and Okonta, 2000, p.40). Furthermore decree 6 of 1975 increased the federal governments share of the oil proceeds from 50% to 80% leaving the states with only 20% (Oronto and Okonta, 2000, p.41).Oronto and Okonta further contended that a senior permanent secretary in the administration of former military head of state general Gowon had cyn ically remarked in a public lecture that the people of the niger delta were most unlikely to pose any real threat to the regimes continued exploitation of their oil wealth as they were comparatively few in population and thus could be easily subdued, (Oronto and Okonta, 2000, p.41). They therefore concluded that this is exactly what the Nigerian military junta has done setoff from the mid eighties when the people of the Niger delta began to raise their voices in protest (Oronto and Okonta, 2000, p.41).Following in the next chapter therefore is a detailed report on the activities of the select multinationals with particular reference to their corporate social responsibility (CSR), on the one hand, and their alleged collusion with the authorities to perpetrate gross human rights violations against the host communities, on the other. However business and operating principles will first of all be examined before delving into the detailed report.Chapter 3Operating doctrinesThe voluntar y principles on security and human rights are a unique tripartite, multi stakeholder initiative established in 2000 that introduced a set of principles to guide extractive companies in maintaining the safety and security of their operations within an operating framework that ensures deference for human rights and fundamental freedoms. The voluntary principles address three main areas risk management, interactions between companies and public security and interaction between companies and private securityVoluntary principles on security and human rights, 2000Prior to this time, shell which was the first multinational to start exploration in Nigeria had to abide by the 1948 universal declaration of human rights which called on all, including companies to respect the rights of individuals. However there were no concrete laws in the nation at the time as regards exploration and exploitation, therefore SPDC formed its own set of principles to which it conducted its operations in 1979 (S PDC, 2003). Subsequently other multinationals in this review (Exxon Mobil, and Chevron) began their operations within the nation in 1955 and 1913 respectively with their own business principles that would guide their operations and several other treaties that they signed on to. One critical factor about their operating principles is that they appear to be similar in most of the various areas of human rights and CSR with virtually the same rules. SPDC for instance has in its portfolio a set of guiding principles apparently aimed at bringing development to the host communities in particular and the entire environment of its operations generally, some of which areSustainable developmentResponsibility to the societyHealth, safety , and security local communitiesCommunication and engagementShell argues that the above mentioned principles govern all of its operations and bodies within the country. For instance its business principles to society is to conduct business as responsible for( p) corporate members of society, to comply with applicable laws and regulations, to support fundamental human rights in line with legitimate role of business, and to give proper regard to health, safety, and the environment(SPDC, 2009*). Principle 5 therefore guarantees health, while one which is regarded as primary in relation to this discourse is principle 6 which states thatShell companies aim to be good neighbours by continuously improving the ways in which we contribute directly or indirectly to the general wellbeing of the communities within which we work. We manage the social impacts of our business activities carefully and work with others to enhance the benefits to local communities, and to mitigate any negative impacts from our activities. In addition, Shell companies take a constructive interest in societal matters, directly or indirectly related to our business. (SPDC, 2009)Similarly, ExxonMobil argues that its standards of business conducts provide a framework for their operations responsibly, and that they abide by the United Nations Declaration of Human rights as it applies to companies, the fundamental Principles and rights at work of 1998 ILO Declaration, and are active participants of the earlier stated voluntary principles on Security and Human rights and most recently the UN global compact (*). They also argue that they comply with all environmental laws and regulations and apply responsible standards where laws or regulations do not exist (ExxonMobil, 2009) interestingChevron also like the other companies in this review abides by the UNDHR, and has adopted certain treaties and covenants such as the ILO principles and rights at work, the UN global compact, as well as its own companys business operating principles which are all geared towards ensuring that it operates and maintains high standards in its activities in host countries/communities (*). According to the companys principles regarding respect for human rights, it maintains that it supports universal human rights and as such condemns human rights abuses (sec 1.27,p.29). Furthermore with regards to the environment,Corporate Policy 530 commits Chevron to comply with the letter and spirit of all environmental, health and safety laws and regulations (sec 1.4) P.14.With this said, a full detailed report of the human rights records of the multinationals under study will be reviewed.Spdc (Shell Petroleum Development Company)Unarguably one of the biggest and utile companies in the world, Shell first began its global operations in 1907 as an offshoot of the British owned shell transport and trading company (STTC) and the princely Dutch petroleum company of the Netherlands(Okonta and Oronto,2000. P.62). Since then, the multinational has spread its wings to virtually all countries of the world, and this giant produces oil and gas in approximately 45 countries of the world with interests in other natural resources such as zinc, uranium coal mining and a host of others i n about a hundred countries (ibid P.62). As measured by its business peers and even many of its adversaries, it is seen as an outstanding company (Doyle, 2002. see preface). SPDC was granted its exploration license in 1938 to prospect for oil throughout Nigeria (Okonta, Douglas, 2001, pp.37-39), and it teamed up with British Petroleum to open up the Nigerian oil Fields the first oil well being explored and drilled in Oloibiri in 1956 (ibid). On the 17th of February 1958, shells first official oil shipment from Oloibiri was made, producing an estimated 367,000 barrels a day. (*REVIEW SENTENCE)SPDC in its own ways has impacted positively and added value to the lives of the citizens, for example through the annual shell scholarship which is open to virtually all students in the Nigerian higher education system. Furthermore, shell was recognized as the first multinational to begin a HIV/AIDS in Nigeria intervention programme and thus this programme has reached most states in the federat ion*. SPDC has also sponsored several programmes such as IT and various digital learning programmes for schools in Nigeria. However for the most part, shell has built a few schools within the delta region one of which happened recently in Bayelsa state(*). In the area of compensation for environmental devastation and involvement with human rights abuse, SPDC, argues that it offers adequate clean up of the polluted environment and has compensated the best way it can (*REF). Most recently, the families of late ken Saro Wiwa and his colleagues were settled by the multinational, however it was assumed by the general public as settlement for shells involvement with the case, shell on the contrary denied, and claimed that it was a humanitarian gesture aimed at establishing a trust fund for Ogoni people (SPDC, 2009). Most recently, SPDC launched series of business radio programs towards the economic development of the Niger Delta which would also use initiatives such as LIVEWIRE, telecommu nications self trade programmes among others (Yusuf, 2009, p.A4)SPDC also claims to support and finance community development initiatives in the Niger Delta outside of its tax obligations. These initiatives are reportedly in the area of small business development (SPDC, 2009, p.1). In 2008, SPDC contributed $56.8 million to the over $158.2 million statutory disbursements to the NDDC by Shell-run operations, in addition to another $25.2 million SPDC contribution to an additional $84 million enthronization by operations run by SPDC in various development projects (ibid,p.1). SPDC also reportedly invested $2.25 Million in partnership with USAID Nigeria and the International Institute of tropic Agriculture in an $11.3 million project to develop cassava farming over a five year period. More than 3,200 farmers were said to have standard training under this programme (ibid, p.2).However, it is generally believed that the exploitation and devastation of land of the people of the Niger d elta began with the first discovery of crude in Oloibiri village in the Delta region of the then Eastern Nigeria in 1956.For the records, there was a 50-50 profit sharing agreement put in place by the Nigerian government and multinational oil companies at the time shortly before Nigeria gained its independence from the British in 1960. Amidst all of this Nigeria had a series of changed governments including several military coups which gave room for corruption. Presently, shell accounts for about 50 percent of oil production in the country the bulk of it in the Niger Delta with the attendant gas flaring, oil spillage, illegal building of canals and angry dumping that has brought the human ecosystem of the Delta area to a near-total collapse, destroying farmland, economic crops and fishing creeks*. While this degree of devastation, poverty, disease, loss of lives and property occurs in this area, unfortunately shell despite many covenants and treaties it has ratified on corporate re

Differences in Grid and Air Gap Techniques

Differences in Grid and Air Gap TechniquesIntroductionIn this chapter, a literary works review was carried out so that adequate in organisation about the differences in storage-battery power system and disperse-gap proficiency could be gathered with emphasis on why these techniques atomic number 18 important in unmistakable skiagraphy of the lateral pelvic arch. These two techniques will be analysed to explain fall in the acquisition of the check. Both techniques will be compared and their rewards and disadvantages discussed. This was done by means of radiography books and journals. Where, possible primary sources of information were chosen. However, original studies could not always be obtained and secondary sources had to be considered. The use of the internet was similarly important as it served as a source for and access to applicable articles. Related literature was mainly sourced exploitation the online data bases of EBSCO, CINHAL and Pubmed as well as the Institu te of Health Cares depository library and facilities.Image fictional characterImage quality refers to the ability to view the anatomical structure under get word with precision and which makes it possible to identify and spot any(prenominal) abnormalities (Bushong, 2008). The quality of the calculate depends on several physical and physiological factors and this makes it hard to measure. Image qualityIs defined in radiological terminology as the affinity between the structures of a test sample to be irradiated with x-rays and the parameters of its visualisation (Hertrich, 2005, pg.244)According to Bushong (2008), the most important factors that ameliorate or degrade impression quality are contrast event, spacial resolution, noise and artefacts. Image quality passelnot be measured in a precise way since the quality of radiographs is hard to define (Bushong, 2008).In digital radiography (DR) the regard quality depends on a number of characteristics that can neuter the view ing experience. One of these factors is frequency, which is a measure of the total core of contrast deep down the image. This characteristic depends on the raw data (x-ray muscle) that the imaginativeness detector absorbs. The frequency of the image is represented by contrary grey outgo levels that show the density of a particular part of the anatomical structure. This is how contrast is bear upon. A high contrast image has high frequency overdue to the measurement of x-ray photons absorbed (Carlton Adler, 2006).Image quality is also subjective and depends on the viewer (Sherer et al., 2006). Different people may need to alter the quality of the image by increase or reducing the contrast or by changing the precipitousness of the image depending on their individual visual abilities (Dendy Heaton, 2003). Dendy and Heaton (2003) argue that image quality also depends on the presentment system and the way the image is produced. The authors further argue that room lighting als o affects image quality and king also diminish image quality.Image contrastImage contrast refers to the difference in densities between adjacent anatomical structures. The amount of contrast produced on an image depends on the structural characteristic of the anatomical part of the body as well as the characteristics of the x-ray beam when it penetrates the patients body. Contrast depends on the attenuations at bottom the patients body due to different densities in various parts of the body. The higher the difference in densities, the higher is the contrast (Sherer et al., 2006). However, small changes in densities of structures would not be detected on a high contrast image since high contrast does not redeem a great all overflowing exposure line of latitude to give several shades of grey in the image (Bushong, 2008). This means that having high contrast in an image does not necessarily mean that it is best for e truly radiographic examination. Having low contrast means that better contrast resolution is produced and this gives the viewer the ability to differentiate between anatomical structures that have interchangeable densities. This is why contrast is a very crucial factor in image quality (Oakley, 2003). pattered shaft affects image contrast and the characteristics of the receptor and display system. The anatomical detail and contrast of small anatomical structures may also be reduced due to image blurring (Carlton Adler, 2006).NoiseNoise affects the images contrast resolution and the detail seen in the image. Like audio noise and video noise, radiographic noise is ca utilise by weak signals in heavenss of the image (Oakley, 2003). The lower the noise the better the contrast resolution and so image quality is better. According to Bushong (2008), there are four main components that affect radiographic noise. These are graininess, structure colorize, quantum mottle and go around radiation. Graininess and structure mottle cannot be controlled by the radiographer since they are aquiline on the image receptor. However, the radiographer can use several techniques and exposure factors to improve image quality and reduce the noise as much as possible depending on the subject under examination. Penet ration talent of the x-ray photons (kV) can be increased in subjects that are obese and that are having thick areas of their bodies irradiated. Quantum mottle is also a very important characteristic in formation noise. Bushong (2008) explains that quantum mottle depends on the amounts of x-rays that are exposed and absorbed by the image detector. When few x-rays react with the receptor the expirationant image will appear mottled. However, when more(prenominal) x-rays are absorbed by the detector, the image will appear smooth. Noise can be calculated by measuring the signal-to noise ratio of the image (Bushong, 2008). If not enough x-ray photons reach the detector, the image is said to be under-exposed, resulting in a low si gnal-to-noise ratio. However, a high signal-to-noise ratio is achieved if the right radiographic technique is used with the right exposure factors (Bushong, 2008). spacial ResolutionSpatial resolution is a term used in imaging that refers to the resolution of a radiograph. Having a high resolution means that more detail can be seen and detected on the image. Spatial resolution is a very important performance indicator in radiography. Quality control phantoms are used to check the spatial resolution and contrast of an imaging system. Spatial resolution relies on spatial frequency and this quantity could be calculated by seeing the number of line p pass arounds per millimetre (Lp/mm). These line p rail lines are olive-drab and white lines that are used to assess the resolution of an image. Detail is very important in radiography since outlines of tissues, organs and detail pathologies need to be sharp and detailed. High spatial resolution is also important when assessing for subtle fractures like scaphoid fractures which could easily be missed if the radiograph is not sharp enough (Bushong, 2008).Scatter radiationWhen x-ray irradiation encounters matter, some photons pass unimpeded grasp the image receptor whereas other photons are completely absorbed since the vitality of the primary x-ray beam is deposited within the atoms comprising the tissue. This absorption interaction of x-ray photons with matter is known as the photoelectric effect (Fauber, et al, 2009). This photoelectric effect is dependent on the matter and its effect decreases rapidly with increasing photon energy (Dendy Heaton 2003). Scatter radiation is made up of photons that are not absorbed but rather lose their energy during interactions with the atoms making up the tissue (Fauber, et al, 2009). This scattering effect is known as the Compton effect (Carlton and Adler, 2006). This happens when the incoming photon interacts with matter and loses energy. This will make the photon change dir ection and it may leave the anatomic part to interact with the image receptor (Fauber et al, 2009). Scattered low- photon energy reduces the contrast on the final radiograph and is also highly hazardous for patients and staff due to its changed direction and low energy from the primary beam (Dendy Heaton, 2003).Scatter ReductionAs explained above, scatter radiation is produced during a Compton interaction in which a primary photon interacts with an atom of the patients body and loses its speed and direction. Scatter is produced mainly in the patient due to the variable attenuation and densities of the different organs in the body and this could be controlled by using anti-scatter techniques and the right exposure factors. Consequently the radiographer should use the adequate technique and exposure factors to reduce the radiation produced within the patients body. Carlton and Adler (2006) argue that when the energy of the primary beam is increased there is a higher chance for the ph otons to undergo the Compton interaction. This means that the higher the energy accustomed to the photons (kV) the more likely it is that there is Compton interaction with the bodys atoms, therefore creating more scatter radiation and a decline in radiographic contrast (Bushong, 2008 Carlton Adler, 2006). However, Shah, Hassan Newman (1996) think otherwise. In their study they stressed the strongness of anti-scatter techniques on image contrast and cogitate that the influence of kV on scatter production is small. The authors further stated that the forward motion in contrast that occurs when the kV is lowered is usually due to an increased subject contrast since less scatter reaches the pick out. Carlton and Adler (2006) also gave importance to the size of the area of body being irradiated. They suggested that by decreasing the area of irradiation as well as applying compression, scatter radiation reaching the detector could be significantly reduced. Using this technique Sha h, Hassan and Newman (1996) noted a decrease in the venereal disease area product (DAP) when decreasing the area of irradiation, therefore lowering the risk of increasing patient point.Anti-scatter techniquesAnti-scatter techniques are radiographic techniques that make use of devices or applications such as grids and origin gaps so that scatter radiation is absorbed or deviated from reaching the image detector. These anti-scatter techniques help in reducing patient dose as well as improving the quality of the radiographic image. The two main techniques relevant with this study are explained and analysed in the following sub-sections.Grid TechniqueGrids are used in radiography to protect the image detector from scatter radiation. Scatter radiation degrades the quality of the image and may lead to loss of anatomical detail and information (Sherer et al., 2006). Anti-scatter grids are made up of couple radio opaque strips with a low-attenuation material interspacing the strips (Sh erer et al., 2006). The most commonly used interspaced materials are aluminium and degree Celsius graphic symbol (Court Yamazaki, 2004). The main function of these anti-scatter grids is contrast improvement. According to Carlton Adler (2006), the most effective way to see how well a grid is performing is by measuring the contrast improvement factor. The contrast improvement factor measures the ability of a grid to improve contrast. This factor is affected by the volume of tissue irradiated and by the kV. If the amount of scatter radiation increases, the contrast of the image will be reduced, therefore reducing the contrast improvement factor. This is calculated using the following formulaK= Radiographic Contrast with the grid/Radiographic contrast without the grid(Carlton Adler, 2006, pg.263)The higher the contrast improvement factor the higher is the contrast improvement. However, Court and Yamazaki (2004) argue that since contrast can be digitally altered in digital radiograp hy, it is best to calculate the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the image. This is particularly useful in cases where there is low object contrast.The interspaced material separating the lead grid lines is also very important in monitoring the functionality of a grid. In the study performed by Court and Yamazaki (2004) it was concluded that aluminium has a higher atomic number than carbon fibre and so it absorbs more low energy scatter radiation. However, aluminium also absorbs some of the primary photons therefore increasing patient dose. Alternatively, carbon fibre absorbs less primary radiation than aluminium (Court Yamazaki, 2004). Grid ratio is also an important factor to consider in improving image quality especially image contrast. The grid ratio is obtained by dividing the height of the strips by the strip separation. As the grid ratio affects the rate of scatter to that reaching the detector it is subservient in improving image contrast (Dendy Heaton, 2003). at that place are principally two types of grids, linear grids (parallel grids) and focused linear grids (Fauber, 2009). Both types have their own advantages and disadvantages. match grids are made up of linear lead strips with low-density material interspacing them and are parallel to each other. This variety of grids produces grid cut-off at lateral edges since they do not coincide with the oblique divergences of the beam (Dendy Heaton, 2003 Fauber, 2009). It is also essential that these grids are positioned correctly, perpendicular to the central ray of the primary beam. If this is done incorrectly, there will be grid cut-off and the lead strips will absorb a lot of the primary beam which will show up on the image (Dendy Heaton, 2003). This will result in image deterioration and in the patient receiving an extra dose of radiation when repeating the exposure. The focused grids, however, are designed in such a way that it allows the lead strips to be gradually angled moving away from the cent ral axis. Although these grids are designed to eliminate the cut-off on the lateral sides, they shut away have to be used at a specific focus to image distance (FID) depending on the type of grid being used (Dendy Heaton, 2003).Although grids are used to improve image contrast and reduce scatter reaching the detector, this is at the expense of a high radiation dose to the patient. This happens because the mAs has to be increased when using the grid. This is necessary in order to compensate the primary beam photons absorbed by the grid (Carlton Adler, 2006).Air-gap TechniqueThe air gap technique is an alternative technique used to reduce the amount of scatter reaching the detector. By employing an air-gap technique between the patient and the image detector, the energy of the scattered photons decreases especially in the firstborn tens of cen metertres due to the large divergence of the beam (Ball Price, 1995). The primary radiation is not affected or reduced, since at this stage the primary beam is almost parallel to the detector (Ball Price, 1995). When the air-gap technique is used, the object to image distance (OID) is increased, which may produce some magnification (Sherer et al., 2006).Anti-scatter techniques are important in reducing low energy radiation reaching the detectors. However, the primary beam should not be deflected or disrupted so that the image acquisition and image quality is not affected (Fauber, 2009).When the grid technique is employed, the grid lines are unable to discriminate between the primary radiation and the scattered radiation and so this could lead to grid cut-off and grid lines may appear on the image (Maynard, 1981). Maynard (1981) argues that with the use of an air-gap the image quality and diagnostic quality of many projections improves. A study by Karoll et al. (1985) analysed the patient dose when the air-gap was employed compared to when the grid was used. In this study the air gap was employed in a digital subtracti on examination. Karoll et al. (1985) reported that by using the air gap technique the mA could be lowered without losing spatial resolution. The results of this study were remarkable as the air gap technique allowed 25% to 88% step-down on the mA without increasing the kV or the time of exposure (Karoll et al., 1985). This meant that patient dose was reduced since the mA was lowered and so the patient was irradiated less. Although this study is 25 years old, it is still effectual since in direct digital radiography, windowing has given the radiographer the possibility to reduce the exposure factors to a certain limit epoch still obtaining a good diagnostic image. This means that patient dose could be lowered.Both grid and air-gap technique were studied and compared to assess patient dose by Kottomasu and Kulms (1997). The authors concluded that the air-gap improves musculoskeletal digital imaging without an increase in skin entrance dose. According to Kottomasu and Kulms (1997), this happened since the scattered photons had less energy once diverged by the patient they were deflected and did not have enough energy to reach the image detector (Kottomasu Kulms, 1997). Barall (2004) also suggested that when employing the air-gap technique the radiographer should apply inverse square law by increasing the SID and applying tighter collimation. This will ensure the highest decrease in patient dose possible (Barall, 2004). The increase in SID could enable a better use of the air gap while reducing magnification by keeping the source to object distant (OID) constant. In relation to the horizontal beam lateral hip projection, there is a reduction in dose and a good diagnostic resultant image when compared with the grid technique (Barall, 2004). Trimble (2000) concluded that imaging the thoracic spine without a grid was possible in children and adults of small size. In this study a significant dose reduction was noted and therefore on this basis, imaging the hip lat erally using a horizontal beam and applying the air-gap technique instead of the grid may also result in a reduction of patient dose as opposed to using the grid technique.Digital radiographyRadiography has been revolutionised and developed throughout the years from screen film (SF) radiography a high quality digital system has evolved (Oakley, 2003). With the introduction of digital imaging systems, image quality characteristics have improved. The process of image formation in DR is similar as in SF. The image is first generated, then processed, archived and presented. Instead of films, DR uses detectors which when exposed to x-ray radiation absorb this irradiated energy which is then modify into electrical charges, recorded, digitized and configured into different grey scales (Dendy Heaton, 2003).The grey scales presented on the produced image represent the amount of x-ray photons absorbed by the detector. A big advantage in digital radiography is image manipulation post-process ing. While viewing the image, the radiographer can zoom in or out, change the greyscale as well as use measuring tools. Another great advantage of DR over SF is that images can be stored safely and archived. This solves the problem of films being lost and enables future reference of the images (Carlton Adler, 2006).There are two types of digital imaging systems computed radiography (CR) and direct digital radiography (DR). In computed radiography imaging plates containing photostimuable crystals are used, which absorb the x-ray energy and store it temporarily (Krner et al., 2007). Processing involves scanning the detective layer pixel by pixel using a high energy laser-beam of a specific wave-length. Since the exposed photon energies are only stored temporarily in the detective layer, the read-out process should start immediately after(prenominal) exposure. This is mainly because the amount of energy stored in these crystals decreases over time. Although this is a big step from sc reen-film (SF), spatial resolution in CR may decrease if viewing monitors are not of the appropriate resolution (Krner et al., 2007). address digital radiographic systems use a photoconductor directly converting x-ray photons to electrical charges, once the photons are absorbed. The most common material used as a photoconductor in industry is amorphous selenium. This material has a high intrinsic spatial resolution. However, the material of the detector does not affect the pixel size, matrix and spatial resolution of the detector (Dendy Heaton, 2003). These are affected by recording and read out devices used. Therefore image processing in DR is as important as in SF and CR. In DR image processing is used primarily to improve the image quality by removing technical artefacts, optimising the contrast and reducing the noise (Dendy Heaton, 2003). shaft DoseThe transition from SF to DR has also changed the radiation dose that the patient gets from an x-ray exposure. Radiation dose is t he amount of radiation absorbed by the patient due to a radiation exposure (Carlton Adler, 2006). In SF radiography the dynamic range of the receptor (film) is relatively low and so it only detects specific exposures that lie within its parameters. However, in DR the digital receptor can detect a wide range of exposures. This means that a slightly underexposed or overexposed image is acceptable since image quality can be altered using windowing. Therefore in DR the radiation dose could be kept relatively low when compared to SF while still producing a good diagnostic image. This could also work the other way when patients are overexposed to radiation due to the wide dynamic range of the receptors. The ALARA concept is ground on the theory that there is no safe dose of radiation using any kind of irradiation or radioactive material (The Ionising Radiation Medical Exposure Regulations, 2000/2007 The Medical Exposure Directive 97/43/Euratom). In this way individuals internal and ext ernal exposure to radiation is kept to a minimum. This principle does not only address radiation used in care for but also social, technical and economic considerations of use of radiation. This principle also takes into consideration the time of exposure of radiation, filtration, and appropriate materials selected to minimise radioactivity depositing on surfaces. This also ensures the safe disposal of materials containing radioactivity such as needles used in nuclear medicine (The Ionising Radiation Medical Exposure Regulations, 2000/2007, The Medical Exposure Directive 97/43/Euratom).The use of ionising radiation should be monitored and used carefully to ensure as low a dose exposure as is reasonably achievable to the patient while at the same time producing an image of high diagnostic quality.Relative literary worksThe latest literature reviewed in relation to this dissertation was that of Flinthman (2006) who assessed thirty-five horizontal beam lateral hip radiographs for im age quality. Nineteen of the cases were performed using the air-gap technique whereas 16 using the grid technique. Several radiologists and radiographers were asked to evaluate the images. It was found that the air-gap was of higher image quality than the grid technique (Flinthman, 2006). In Flinthmans study several persons were asked to evaluate an spotted number of cases that were meant to be compared regarding the technique used to obtain the radiographs. According to Flinthman (2006) it is more important to have a small group of people evaluating the radiographs. This is because the results could be more specific and more reliable (Flinthman, 2006). A limitation of this study is that Flinthman (2006) did not use the same subjects in both techniques to achieve his results and so it is harder to attain valid and conclusive results that could be applied in a clinical setting.A similar study comparing the grid and air-gap technique was conducted by Persliden and Carlsson (1997). P ersliden and Carlsson (1997) studied scatter reduction using the air-gap and the grid technique. This study investigated the effect of the air-gap technique over the imaging plate and demonstrated the positional variation of scattered radiation (Persliden Carlsson, 1997). The authors concluded that by using the air-gap technique, the patient irradiation was lowered. Persliden and Carlsson (1997) argued that even field size and patient thickness greatly affected the use of the air-gap.As well as Persliden and Carlsson (1997), Trimble (2000) looked and assessed image quality of lateral thoracic spine radiographs and chest radiographs. These examinations were both done using the grid technique and the air-gap technique. Trimble (2000) found it important to have a large sample of subjects while keeping the specialists evaluating the images small. Trimbles study resulted in the air-gap being better for high image quality than the grid.Similiar to this study, Gouldings study (2006) who l ooked at image quality in lateral hip radiography when using both grid and air gap technique. The radiographs were obtained from the accident and emergency department Goulding (2006) worked in, where radiographers performed lateral hip slay through examinations using their preferred air gap or grid technique. Goulding (2006) took a sample from the recorded examinations of both techniques. The researcher excluded examinations with an exposure of 100 mAs or more as well as any duplicate patient numbers due to re-assessment as well as those examinations that used both air gap and grid technique in the same examination as this signified a very large patient. Goulding (2006) compared the sampled gird and air gap radiographs after reporting radiographers evaluated five areas on each radiograph, chosen by the researcher. The radiographers had to score each area from one to five where one is poor and five is optimum. It resulted that the air gap technique had improved image quality more th an the grid technique. A limitation of this study was, however, that the patients used to test for both techniques were not the same, and so this could have meant that the results were not totally reliable since patient size and exposure factors were not constant but varied depending on each examination.ConclusionThe literature reviewed in this chapter has explored furthermore the roles of the air-gap and grid technique in imaging. It has also analysed the effect of scatter radiation and ways to reduce this in order to improve radiographic image quality while limiting the radiation dose to the patient as much as possible. Several studies were reviewed and analysed and will help to improve this experimental research. Some studies that are similar to this study were reviewed and discussed.In the next chapter, a description of the research design used in this study will be presented.

Sex Chromosomes Essay -- Biology, Heterothallic Fungi

The mechanisms responsible for the origin and maintenance of large non-recombining regions on sex chromosomes get to been mostly studied in plants and animals, but the recent breakthrough of similar features on the fungal chromosomes carrying mating type genes in several species may shed new light on this phenomenon (Fraser et al. 2004). Sex chromosomes in plants and animals have evolved from an autosomal pair by the expansion of the non-recombining region around complementary genes determining sex-specific functions (Bergero and Charlesworth 2009). Such a multi-step expansion of the non-recombining regions in sex chromosomes, forming evolutionary strata (Lahn and pageboy 1999), is usually explained by the recruitment of genes determining sexually antagonistic traits (i.e. beneficial in males and deleterious in females, or conversely), via a selection for linkage to the sex-determining genes (Rice 1987, Charlesworth 2005). selective forces driving the evolution of non-recombini ng regions argon however likely to be different in fungi as cells of different mating types exhibit little phenotypical differences.In heterothallic fungi, syngamy can only occur between haploid cells carrying different alleles at the mating type genes, while in homothallic fungi, no such differences are required, allowing universal compatibility (Billiard et al. 2011). The two main fungal phyla have different mating type genes and organization a single locus controls mating type in ascomycetes against two loci in basidiomycetes (i.e. haploid cells should carry different alleles at both loci for successful mating). One of the two loci controlling mating types in basidiomycetes encodes pheromones and pheromone receptors involved in syngamy while the other locus... ...Smith et al. 2004) and Cryptococcus neoformans (Wang et al. 2002). In R. toluroides, the gene encoding ste20 is surrounded with genes encoding pheromones (Coelho et al. 2008). Other genes, such as the abc1, with mor e problematic role in mating and development of fungi have also been found in close proximity to the genes encoding the pheromone and its receptor in R. toluroides (Coelho et al. 2008). In this study, our goals were therefore to 1) identify additional genes belonging to the mating type locus in Microbotryum, in particular the genes encoding the pheromones and the homeodomain proteins, all of which control mating types in most basidiomycetes, 2) assess whether the genealogies of genes in the mating type region as well as of loci of the previously proposed strata are consistent with the existence of evolutionary strata on the mating type chromosomes.

Support of Slavery by the Christian Church Essay -- Slavery Essays

Support of Slavery by the Christian ChurchThe belief in some higher presence, other than our own, has existed since man can recollect. Religion was established from this belief, and it can survive and flourish because of this belief. Christianity, one of several forms of religion that exist today, began quondam(prenominal) during the middle of the first century. Christians believe in a higher presence that they call God. This belief in God is based on faith, not item faith is un head wording belief that does not require proof or evidence. (Websters New World College Dictionary, 1996, p. 487). The belief in God exists primarily for two reasons It answers the header of why we exist, and it is used to exert moral control everywhere society (religion). The reasons for believing in God hold no true validity. Answering the question of mans existence is irrelevant it simply cannot be answered. No one knows when life first began on Earth, nor in what form this life took. We simply exist as far as we know, we always have existed, and we always will exist. (Wallace, 1994). The church claims God is the reason we exist, and this gives the church cause for exerting unnecessary moral control over society. All societies must(prenominal) have a set of rules, or laws, by which they are governed, to prevent anarchy. We must have some form of government, but our laws must come from the people up, not from God down. The government provides necessary control over society morals should be left to the individual. The church has always failed to fulfil this. To suppress individuality is to suppress freedom, and never in our nations short history was the power of the church and the suppression of freedom more evident than during the era of slavery. Had the chur... ... create in 1857) Lewis, P. (1973). Slavery and anarchy. Radical abolitionism Anarchy and the government of god in anti-slavery thought (pp.18-54). Ithica Cornell University Press. Mathews, D. (1980). Religion and s lavery The case of the American south. In C. Bolt & S. Drescher (eds.), Anti-slavery, religion, & straighten out (pp. 207-230). Hamden, CT Archon Books. Ritchie, B. (1968). The mind and heart of frederick douglass Excerpts from speeches of the great negro orator. (pp. 37-63). New York Thomas Y. Crowell. Ross, F. (1969). Slavery ordained by god. New York Negro Universities Press. (Original work published in 1859) The holy bible King james version. (1965). Chicago Good Counsel. Wallace, F. (1994). The neo-tech dicovery. (p. 32). Neo-Tech Worldwide. Websters new world college dictionary. (1996). (p. 487). New York MacMillan USA.